Sociolinguistics as a Way of Adjustment in Conversation

Sociolinguistics as a Way of Adjustment in Conversation INTRODUCTION This study is aiming to examine how different strategies and processes are used in sociolinguistics as a way of adjustment of the writers manner of address in relation to his or her perception of the addressee. This is a complex process of change within the dynamics of conversation and writing. (Giles/Powesland 1975). It is often said that convergence seems to be the rule in media language. For instance, phonological features in radio broadcasting showed that presenters use measurably more informal pronunciations in stations which primarily address lower class, less educated, and younger listeners (Bell 1991. Ch.6). As far as newspapers are concerned, the followed classic hypothesis of convergence has been made by S. Hall, who claims that there is a reciprocity of producer/reader, what he called the public idiom of the media. However, this does not mean that the readers actually speak what they read or listen to, but there is evidence to suggest that a convergence takes place and that each paper makes its own convergence toward what it sees as a mode of discourse acceptable to its readership (Hall 1978,61). BACKGROUND RESEARCH Bell (1991.cb 6) has carried out research into determiner deletion; that being words found within the English Language that (which produces phrases like superstar Cher, newsagents manager Martin Gilbert, Defence Secretary Michael Portillo (all from The Sun, January 6, 1996). Several studies show that the deletion of articles in such phrases distinguishes tabloids from broadsheet British Newspapers. These are correlations with assumed class and education and the deletion seems to imply modernity, populism, and journalistic raciness. -Medienwissenschaft: ein Handbuch zur Entwicklung der Medien un Kommunikations formen Joaquin-FÃ ©lix, Hans-Wemer Ludwig) (Media Science: A manual for the development of the media and communication forms) Ryden (1975) and Bell (1985) both investigate the use of noun phrase name appositions in newspapers language and in particular the spread of phrases like Opposition leader Neil Knock with descriptive noun phrase appositive without a determiner preceding the name. This format is relatively recent and is in Britain largely but not entirely restricted to the two categories of tabloid papers -Social Stylistics: Syntactic variation in British Newspapers Andreas H. Jucker- The influence of the reader in newspaper style is supported by the research carried out by Bell (1991) and Jucker (1989). Bell (1991: 107-108), in his studies on naming expressions, states that this practice was more common in papers like The Sun, The Mirror, The Express than in The telegraph, The Guardian and The Times. The deletions were found in greater numbers in papers catering for lower socio-economic classes. After studying the deletion of determiners Jucker (1989) divided British newspapers into three categories below. He found that determiners were deleted more often in Down markets papers than in Midmarket papers, while there were very few deletions in style with a certain type of reader. Using this information Jucker (1989) divides British newspapers into three categories: Up market: The Times, Financial Times, Guardian, Independent, Daily telegraph Midmarket: Daily Mail, Daily Express, Today Down-market: Daily Mirror, Star, Sun. The writers mentioned in this section all maintain that TABLOIDS and BROADSHEETS are different in almost every way. -A Genre Approach to Re-Entry Patterns in Editorials BARRY PENNOCK Methodology Many considerations were taken in terms of which method would be best to use in order to carry out the investigation into the use of determiners in the media. The first decision that had to be made was which branch of the media would be used as a source for the study. The options ranged from television programs, magazines, internet websites, radio and newspapers. The choice of newspapers was made based primarily on access to previous research, mentioned in the Background Research section of this report. The fact that a similar study had been carried out by Bell et al in the comparison of determiner usage between the different types of newspaper gave a good basis on which to base our own study. Added to this is the intrigue of whether the results obtained will have a similar outcome to those obtained by these linguists twenty years ago. The next step was to realise that in order to study determiners, a content analysis was the only possible method that could be used. It was also the same method used by Bell et al. in their study. However there are many advantages and disadvantages of using this process that led to many limitations to the practical side of the study. It is fairly time consuming which can often limit the researcher to a smaller sample than a less time consuming method. The chance for a margin of error is increased particularly if relational analysis is used. This study does require a level of relational analysis, that being the assumption of what by todays standard of English counts as a missing determiner and what does not; which limits the validity of the results, especially if the intention is to directly compare the results found by Bell et al. It is also difficult to computerize and therefore the results obtained have to be manually automated which adds to the total time consumption that using a digital content analysis could perhaps have avoided. Our study therefore began firstly by selecting a number of different newspapers to compare. This was done by initially selecting an equal number of British papers that are considered heavyweight[1] newspapers, i.e. The Times, The Guardian, The Daily Telegraph, and an equal number of tabloid or middle-market[2] newspapers such as The Daily Mail and the redtops,[3] such as The Sun and The Daily Star. The six papers aforementioned were picked from those available from the University Shop on campus, with each category of newspaper represented and to be used in comparison with each other. They were then grouped into the retrospective classes: Group 1 included The Times, The Daily Telegraph and The Guardian; Group 2 included The Sun, The Daily Mail and The Daily Star. Our hypothesis, that fewer determiners will be deleted from the papers in Group 1 than the amount deleted from Group 2, was then decided upon. On the other hand there are many advantages to using content analysis such as the fact that it can combine quantitative and qualitative operations through the ability to see clearly the context of the deletion or inclusion. This method also has very few ethical issues as it is available to the public and no permission is needed in order to access it. It is also a very unobtrusive means of analysing the use of the English Language. It is also reliable as this study has been done before and can be repeated by the same or other researchers. After the newspapers were selected the specific details of how this content analysis would be carried out was then agreed upon. It was decided that two articles would be analysed from each of the six papers; one regarding a political subject and the other focussing on sport. This was done in order to firstly observe if there was any difference between the uses of determiners between the papers and then secondly if there was a difference within the different papers when the subject matter was different. It was clear that in order to increase the validity of this research the newspapers analysed would have to all be taken from the same date and then the articles chosen were to be about the same topic within politics and sport. The newspapers were therefore collected for analysis on the 6th May 2010 and the similar stories of the day in the two subject areas were then analysed. It was decided that the headlines and tag lines of all the articles would be included in the study. However it was recognised that headlines in general tend to have determiner deletions as standard. After the articles were selected the exact process of working out the determiner deletion was decided upon. Firstly the article word length was counted and recorded, then the entire article was analysed and all the determiners within the article were highlighted and totalled. Then a second analysis of each article was carried out in order to locate where the determiners were missing in accordance with Standard English practice.[4] These would again be totalled and recorded in a spread sheet where the number of determiners which have been deleted would be calculated as a percentage of the total determiners that could have been used in the entire article. Although every measure has been taken to improve the reliability, validity and practical issues posed by any method of research, this study is not without its limitations. Firstly not all the variables can be controlled. Firstly, the sex of the journalist whom had written each article is not being taken into account. This means that the results obtained could be reduced in validity, due to the fact that gender could have an influence over the amount of determiners used within the articles. In a similar vein, the age of the journalist is also unknown, which could similarly have an impact upon the amount of determiners used or deleted. It is also a fairly subjective study and it is likely that some determiner deletions could be overlooked depending upon the researcher carrying out the study. In order to improve this limitation the same person shall be carrying out the content analysis on each of the papers. Due to the time consuming nature of this method as aforementioned the sample si ze had to be kept quite small to three newspapers of the two different categories. This reduces the representativeness of the study as not all newspapers have been analysed therefore it is probably unlikely that any generalisations can be made from this study only suggestions.

American Views Before and After World War II

America is well-know for its wealth and independence. Proud Americans come together to fight for democracy and freedom, while fighting against extremists and their desire for world conquest. War stories usually favor the victor. As a result, after World War II, many of the stories that began to circulate added to an already inflated US ego. After World War II, depending upon the country, the impressions of Americans are diverse.On one hand, Americans were saviors; however, the other hand, many were offended because of America’s tentativeness to join the war efforts, plus the overconfidence Americans displayed with they eventually joined the war. Although, the US declared themselves as isolationists, they continued to provide defense supplies to the Allied states. These defense supplies came by way of Roosevelt’s Lend-Lease program. This program contributed to Allies collaborative efforts to resist German advancements. The Axis powers took considerable offense to this po licy, which resulted in hostility towards the US.By the time, the US officially entered the war; a devastated, Nazi-occupied Europe was struggling for survival. The wealth gained from Lend-Lease resulted in a secure and confident economy for the US. This great wealth, massive military, and America’s ability to harness atomic power, added to the audacity to use that power, were the factors that elevated the US into superpowerdom. Although, the economy was not the only reason for America’s ascent to become a superpower, it was also the combined efforts of the American citizens to support the war effort, which attributed to their elevated status.However, according to Stoler, most Americans did not attribute the end of World War II to combined efforts; they perceived it as a return to â€Å"normalcy† (p. 385). Stoler continued his opinion by stating that both Britain and the Soviet Union were slightly aggravated and annoyed at the US for assuming the superior status at the end of World War II (p. 388). Americans believed their arrival secured the defeat over Nazi Germany and the Japanese Empire. However, Britain and the Soviet Union’s opinions differ slightly regarding the US.According to Stoler, the British considered Americans â€Å"latecomers† to the war and felt abandoned during the first two years (p. 388). When the US finally decided to join the war, they entered with the â€Å"naive, arrogant, and incorrect belief that they should dictate both combined wartime strategy and a new, self-serving postwar international order† (p. 388). From the Soviet’s point of view, America’s role was â€Å"relatively insignificant† as compared to the Soviet role; plus, the US deliberately procrastinated entering the war with the intention to exploit the Soviet Union by using the Lend-Lease program (Stoler p.388). Memory serves as an important element during war-time. Many people consider memories of specific event s irrelevant. These recollections of selectively retrieved events can possibility deliver incorrect details of said events. Earl Kelly with the McClatchy-Tribune Business News even quoted Carol Gluck while speaking at the 31st annual Bancroft Lecture at the Naval Academy, â€Å"history and memory are often in collision, rather than collusion, with each other† (2010).Even the most overrated misconceptions of World War II were sometimes included into movies. Often, the US Government embedded them selves into the movie industry. The reason being was to influence Americans on the importance of entering the war by means of propaganda. Worland states, that the Office of War Information affected most popular war-time films; especially films that â€Å"depicting the armed forces, images of America as a united, democratic society, the ideology of the Axis enemy, and so on† (p.48). This governmental influence pushed Americans to support the war effort. The U. S. brought to the w ar added military, supplies, and ideas for the Allies. While the US may have been imprudent and arrogant in their attempt to assume control, but the U. S. did bring alternative solutions to the table. To some countries, Americans are egotistical and lazy. Fortunately, America’s pompous attitudes gave the added incentive and strength to the Allied powers that helped end the war. Works Cited Kelly, E.(2010). Historian says memories fuel inaccuracies. McClatchy – Tribune Business News. Retrieved November 20, 2010, from ProQuest Newsstand. (Document ID: 2155533071). Stoler, M. (2001). The Second World War in U. S. History and Memory. Diplomatic History, 25(3), 383. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier database. Worland, R. (1997). OWI meets the monsters: Hollywood Horror Films and War Propaganda, 1942 to 1945. Cinema Journal. 37(1), p. 47-65. Stable URL: http://www. jstor. org/stable/1225689

How to look after children’s hair, skin and teeth Essay

Children’s skin and hair should be appropriately looked after as when children develop they become more and more independent especially in their skin and hair care routines. It is vital to make sure the children are being washed and taught to look after themselves whilst they are being cared for by parents, guardians or staff at the nursery. If a child has really bad skin or an infection he/she will start to feel uncomfortable which is terrible for a young child to go through. Parents and staff members at the setting need to cooperate with one another in order to find out about the child’s skin and hair care routine. Every child may have different routines based on their family’s traditions and needs if the child has an allergy or irritation, the parents will have to advice staff at the setting what products would be best to use for them. SKINCARE Daily skin care for toddlers The skin protects the body from catching any infections, a few points to avoid this are: Changing nappies carefully to keep away from infections Wipe or wash the sweat of bodies to avoid sore areas and inflammation Keep the skin moisturised appropriately Young children should be taught how to wash their hands and praising them should encourage them to want to repeat the routine again as well as making them confident Hand wash should be used carefully as it may dry the skin out if too much is given continuously to children Never should any child be left alone near water Only use specific products which are given and agreed by parents to use if children have allergies or skin conditions for example eczema. Use gentle, fragrance-free cleansers and soaps. To prevent dry skin and rashes, apply sufficient amounts of moisturizer after bathing. Bug bites -The most common bug bites are from fleas, mosquitoes, wasps, or bees. -To avoid bug bites, apply an insect repellent which will help fast -Bites and stings are very common in children, mainly during the spring and summer months. Among the insects that often bite and sting are spiders, mites, mosquitoes, flies, fleas, ants, bees, and wasps. Skin Care Routine For Children 1 year and older- Babies and children should have daily showers every week to keep clean as they do often sweat whilst sleeping and so bathing is important in order to keep them hygienic. If in some cases the baby or child is advised not to bathe every day due to dry skin or eczema then there another way of is to gently wash their hands/fingertips with a soft cloth and only in key areas wash the face, under arms and the groin area which are the main areas. After the children have been washed a moisturiser should be applied on the entire body with the correct cream that matches the child’s skin. Babies (Under 1 year): Gently wipe the body with a soft cloth once a day with a mild cleanser. Tenderly wipe the face with water. Babies are recommended to bathe every 2-3 days a week. after they have been washed, with the appropriate creams moisturise the whole of the body especially on the areas such as elbows, knees and hands as they tend to become dry. Moisturising for babies under 6 months is not necessary as the skin does not get dry due to the pores still developing however if there are any dry patches then the creams should be applied. The products for children and babies that should be used are lightly fragranced shampoos, body wash or products like Johnson Head to Toe body wash is simple to apply and does the entire job as shampoo or conditioner is not needed, everything is inside the product already or Aveeno Baby Moisturizing Lotion is another option. HAIRCARE – Taking to parents or the child, will help staff find out about the child’s needs – Children with allergies will require certain or recommended products from parents -Head lice is common, the lice live on the scalp. There are various types of treatments which may include special lotions and combs -Black children may have certain oil rubbed in their hair and might not wash their hair frequently. Using adult’s shampoos in a child’s hair would not be appropriate as it may sting the child in the eye or irritate them on the scalp and so using the right shampoo, and using the proper detangling technique is vital in order to keep the child’s hair healthy. When children are young it is the best time to teach them how to wash, rinse, comb and style their hair as well as doing this in a routine so the children learn quickly and become used to the routine so they can independently do it themselves. Young children’s scalps and still developing and their hair texture may not reveal itself until he/she is at least 8 years of age. If a sensitive head has had harsh products that include chemicals used to it on a daily basis then it is possible that the child’s hair will always be damaged and it could lead to hair loss in the future. A baby’s hair will grow and be free rather than tied up or patterns created in the hair. It is better to let the hair be loose and allow it to feel light. Gentle shampoos and gentle techniques when combing or brushing will leave the hair to its own device. Putting a little oil or water is all the child’s hair needs as not much is required and after a matter of time the child will have a head full of thick healthy hair. Hair care tips: Washing – wash hair using a mild shampoo that doesn’t sting the child’s eyes. When they are old enough, teaching them how to shampoo and rinse their own hair will help them learn to do it themselves. Conditioner should be used when the child is older and has longer hair but avoid putting conditioner on the scalp. Tangles – detangling is best done before the child’s hair is washed. Use a wide tooth comb and start at the bottom of the hair, working your way up. Tangles can cause terrible battles between the parent and child. To reduce the pain of combing tangled hair, hold the section of hair you are trying to comb tightly. For extremely hard tangles, a good de tangler will help. Combing/Brushing – encourage your child to comb/ brush their own hair. Do not brush the hair too much as it will leave the hair very greasy. Use a comb, not a brush on hair that is wet. It increases the shine and minimizes hair breakage. Accessories – use good q uality brushes, combs and accessories for your child’s hair. Kids love having fun clips and hair ties. Avoid hairclips hat are sharp, as these can hurt the scalp and  cause hair damage. Keeping hair neatly tied back is a good way of avoiding hair tangling. TEETHCARE Teeth develop in a specific order and also the way they are looked after is important. A few facts for teeth are listed below: – Babies are born with teeth growing inside their gums – The average age when teeth start to show is 6 months -There are 20 teeth in the first set that appear, these are called the ‘milk teeth’ – Milk teeth show at the age of 2-3 years – From 5 years old and onwards milk teeth start to fall out -When children are 6 years old, permanent teeth start to come out – Larger teeth replace the milk teeth – Molars and incisors are the first permanent teeth to appear – Braces are sometimes needed to repair permanent teeth that are uneven. Chewing is good for the teeth however sweet sugary foods can cause decay. Encouraging every child to brush their teeth after each meal is vital. When the baby is born, he/she will already have 20 primary teeth, some which are fully developed in the jaw. Using a damp washcloth over the baby’s gums after feedings can prevent creating bad bacteria. Once the child has a few teeth showing, brushing them with a soft child’s toothbrush or rubbing them with clean gauze at the end of the day will help keep the teeth healthy if the routine is carried out daily. Babies can develop dental decay problems due to feeding habits not put into practice, for example putting a baby to sleep with a bottle in his or her mouth may be suitable in the short term however it can damage the baby’s teeth as the sugars from the juice or milk remain on a baby’s teeth for hours, they may eat away at the enamel building up a condition that is called ‘bottle mouth’. Signs of b ottle mouth are discoloured front teeth. This may lead to pulling out all the front teeth until the permanent teeth grow in. Times and a routine should be set to give children the bottle in order to help them prevent damage to their teeth. Children aged 1-3 should only use toothpaste if their cavity risk is high but then again the amount should be the size of a pea. Children who are aged 1-3 years with low cavity risk do not need to use toothpaste as a wet toothbrush is fine. From the ages 3-6, children again should use a pea size  amount of toothpaste which has to be applied by an adult. Children should be told and encouraged to spit out the excess after brushing their teeth. Bad TeethOutcome of Bad teeth Perfect teeth

The Life of Abraham Essay example - 2510 Words

God selected Abraham to be the father of the His people. The bible does not directly state why God selected him, but after reading scripture one can conclude that God selected Abraham due to his great faith. Abraham’s life lends itself as an example to all who desire to walk with God. EARLY LIFE Abraham was one of three sons born to Terah in the city of Ur of the Chaldeans. Research conducted by Elmer Towns indicates that Abraham was younger than his two brothers, Nahor and Haran, although the bible does not specifically indicate that (56). The exact date of his birth cannot be determined, but it is estimated to have been between 2100 and 1800 B.C. (Davis, 159). He was born after the flood and through the family line of Shem, ten†¦show more content†¦The bible does not indicate how long Abraham lived in Haran, but it does say that he remained there until his father’s death. At this juncture in Abraham’s life, God again called out to him. RESPONSE TO GOD’S CALL In reaction to God’s call, Abraham departed Haran enroute to Canaan. At 75 years of age, he abandoned his way of life assembled his wife, his nephew Lot, his servants, livestock, and material possessions and moved in accordance with God’s leading. Abraham’s obedience to God serves as an example for all believers to emulate. He left his â€Å"comfort zone† of living to follow God’s spoken promises even though there was definite uncertainty as to how they were going to come to pass. Abraham sojourned in faith as God led him on his journey through the land of Canaan. He demonstrated a pattern of reliance on and fellowship with God during his trek by building altars at stops along the way. Genesis 12:7 points out that God spoke to Abraham in Shechem, promising the land to his descendants and Abraham constructed an altar. Genesis 12:8 shows that Abraham communed with God after moving from Shechem to Bethel by erecting an altar. 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